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Ballantine, W.J. 1987. New Zealand's course for marine reserves. New Scientist. 1563:54-55.

Ballantine, W.J. 1989. Marine reserves: Lessons from New Zealand. Underwater Science 13:1-14.

For the past decade a five km stretch of coast in NE New Zealand has been protected by law from all exploitative and damaging activity. The creation of this marine reserve encouraged the production of under- water habitat maps, allowed baseline surveys of more natural densities and distributions and permitted investigations of natural behaviour and interactions. The results of this work are not just interesting in their own right, they also strongly suggest that effective understanding of marine ecology may not be possible without such protected areas. The idea of controls is central to scientific investigation. The effects of pervasive exploitation cannot be determined without observations and experiments in areas where exploitation does not occur. A system of representative, unexploited and permanent marine reserves is needed to allow proper understanding and hence efficient management of living resources. The New Zealand experience is that the social and political problems of creating such reserves are much larger in prospective imagination than in actual practice. However the scientific, social and economic benefits of fully protected marine reserves proved in the event to be considerable, in both degree and range.

Ballantine, W.J. 1991. Crayfish and Marine Reserves. Excerpts on effects from "Marine Reserves for New Zealand."

Ballantine, W.J. 1991. Marine reserves for New Zealand. Leigh Laboratory Bulletin No. 25. University of Auckland, New Zealand.

Ballantine, W.J. 1992. General versus specific solutions in the conservation of marine resources. Coral Reef Coalition Conference in Key West, Florida. 7 pages.

Temporary closures, gear restrictions, size limits and quotas have a long history in marine fisheries management, but are applied to particular species and/or on a local basis as problems arise. More recently non-extractive marine reserves have been established in several countries, but again only on a local basis or in response to specific problems. So far, there seem to have been no attempts, in the sea, to apply standard terrestrial conservation principles. On land, systems of unexploited reserves are regarded as having important intrinsic values, as well as providing general solutions to a wide range of potential problems. The questions discussed in this paper are: (I) Would a system of marine reserves have intrinsic values, and if so, would they include scientific benefits?(ii) Do the differences in ecology between land and sea make marine reserve systems impossible or merely alter the necessary arrangement? (iv) If the answers to these questions cannot be established clearly on present evidence, what trials should be conducted now. It is suggested that present knowledge of marine ecological principles is sufficient to design a network of non-extractive marine reserves large enough to test the important questions, while being small enough (at least in New Zealand) to be politically practical. It is further suggested that the likely benefits are sufficiently large and varied to make this highly desirable, and that the pressures on marine resources are increasing so rapidly as to make action urgent. It is concluded that a full-scale trial should be conducted forthwith, comprising a network of "no take" marine reserves covering a minimum of 10% by area of all marine habitats in all bio- geographic regions.

Ballantine, W.J. 1995. Networks of "No-take" marine reserves are practical and necessary. Pages 13-20 in N.L. Shackell and J.H. Martin Willison (editors). Marine Protected Areas and Sustainable Fisheries. Published by Science and Management of Protected Areas Assoc. 600 pp.

Recreational groups, schools, tourists, scientists, and fisheries interests. The list of potential benefits has steadily expanded, and evidence for their existence has accumulated. Specific benefits are commonly perceived, but the possibility of wider benefits, resulting from a network of ecologically-representative marine reserves, is beginning to receive serious consideration. As a result, marine reserves are being proposed at an increasing rate. By early 1994, eleven reserves had been established, five more await final decision and 20 further proposals are in various stages of public discussion. All political parties in New Zealand now endorse "no take" marine reserves in principle, and some are proposing "10% of all marine habitats by the year 2000. The lessons are simple but surprising. Management of marine resource exploitation and its problems is necessary but not sufficient. An independent and additional system that ignores the "problems (of controlling fisheries, waste disposal, habitat destruction, etc.) and concentrates on providing unexploited areas in the sea is scientifically essential (for observational and experimental controls); economically sensible (for insurance and sustainability); and socially acceptable in democracy (for a wide variety of positive reasons, including conservation principles, education and recreation).

Ballantine, W.J. and D.P. Gordon. 1979. New Zealand's first marine reserve, Cape Rodney to Okakari Pont, Leigh. Biol. Cons. 15:273-280.

Bannerot, S.P. and M.C. Schmale. 1983. Assessment of fish communities in John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park and Key Largo Coral Reef Marine Sanctuary with comments on the use of a rapid visual technique. University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL. 99 pp.

Barnes, J.C. 1994. SMZS: A commercial fishing industry perspective. Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission Special Report No 41. 38-39.

Indirectly provides support for marine reserves by showing that a healthy commercial menhaden stock and fishery operate despite having 40% of fishable habitat closed to the industry.

Barr, B. 1995. Use of special management areas by fishery management councils: examples and case studies. A Special Report to the New England Fishery Management Council's Interspecies Committee. Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary, Plymouth, Massachusetts.

Barr, B. W. 1995. The U. S. National Marine Sanctuary Program and Its Role in Preserving Sustainable Fisheries Pages 165-173 in N.L. Shackell, and J.H. Martin Willison (editors). Marine Protected Areas and Sustainable Fisheries. Published by Science and Management, Wolfville, Nova Scotia.

The U.S. National Marine Sanctuary Program provides for the protection of discrete areas within the waters of the U.S. deemed to be of special national significance through comprehensive and coordinated conservation and management of those sites. The Program currently includes 14 sites from New England to American Samoa that protect and preserve a broad array of critical marine resources and habitats. It is because of this variety of habitats and resources, and the many different site-specific management frameworks developed to insure the protection of those resources, that provide the opportunity for sanctuaries to play an important role in the preservation of sustainable fisheries.

Barry, W.J. and J.W. Foster. 1997. California underwater parks and reserves planning and management. p. 25-36. In : Marine Protected Areas of California: A Summary of a Conference Session. D.M. McCardle and R.M. Starr (eds.). Univ. Of California, Sea Grant Cooperative Extension, Santa Barbara, CA.

Batisse, M. 1990. Development and implementation of the biosphere reserve concept and its applicability to coastal regions. Env.Cons. 17:111-116.

Beckmann, Leslie 1995. Marine Conservation in the Canadian Arctic Pages 227-234 in N.L. Shackell and J.H. Martin Willison (editors). Marine Protected Areas and Sustainable Fisheries. Published by Science and Management

This paper discusses marine protection in the Arctic by: I) describing the Arctic marine region; ii) describing the areas to be protected; iii) detailing past efforts to protect marine ecosystems; iv) describing the Nunavut Agreement as a good model for marine management; and v) describing a project recently begun by the Canadian Arctic Resources Committee and the Canadian Nature Federation to ensure that areas in all three of Canada's marine regions receive adequate protection.

Bell, J.D. 1983. Effects of depth and marine reserve fishing restrictions on the structure of a rocky reef fish assemblage in the north-western Mediterranean Sea. J. Applied Ecol. 20:357- 369.

Bennett, B.A. and C.G. Attwood. 1991. Evidence for recovery of a surf-zone fish assemblage following the establishment of a marine reserve on the southern coast of South Africa. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 75:173-181.

Bergh, M.O. and W.M. Getz. 1989. Stability and harvesting of competing populations with genetic variation in life history strategy. Theoretical Population Biology 36: 77-124.

Bohnsack, J.A. 1982. The effects of piscivorous predator removal on coral reef fish community structure. 1981 Gutshop: Third Pacific Technical Workshop Fish Food Habits Studies. Washington Sea Grant Publication. pp. 258-267.

Examined reserve for a single gear type (spearfishing).

Bohnsack, J.A. 1992. Reef resource habitat protection: The forgotten factor. in R. H. Stroud (editor). Stemming the tide of coastal fish habitat loss. Marine Recreational Fisheries 14:117-129.

Bohnsack, J.A. 1993. Marine reserves: they enhance fisheries, reduce conflicts, and protect resources. Oceanus. 36:63-71

Bohnsack, J.A. 1994. How marine fishery reserves can improve reef fisheries. Proceedings Gulf Caribbean Fisheries Institute 43:217-241.

Besides a general review, this summarizes the rapid effect of strict recreational fishing on grouper from an excellent Australian study.

Bohnsack, J.A. 1994. Marine reserves: They enhance fisheries, reduce conflicts, and protect resources. NAGA, ICLARM Quarterly, July 1994:4-7.

Bohnsack, J.A. 1995. Maintenance and recovery of reef fishery productivity. Chapter 11, Pages 283-313. in Management of Reef Fisheries. N.V.C. Polunin and C.M. Roberts (eds). Chapman & Hall, London. (Preprint) Marine Reserves start on page 300 and examples of single species reserves from Florida are discussed. This is the most recent review.

Bohnsack, J.A. 1996. Maintenance and recovery of reef fishery productivity. Chapter 11, Pages 283-313. in Management of Reef Fisheries. N.V.C. Polunin and C.M. Roberts (eds). Chapman & Hall, London.

Bohnsack, J.A. In press. Maintenance and recovery of fishery productivity. Chapter 11 in Tropical Reef Fisheries. N. V. C. Polunin, and C. M. Roberts (editors). Chapman and Hall.

Bohnsack, J.A., D.E. Harper, D.B. McClellan. 1992. Marine reserves for reef fishes: Areas in the Florida Keys, U.S.A. (Abstract). Page 10 in Abstracts of the 7th International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam, June 1992.

Bohnsack, J.A., D.E. Harper, and D.B. McClellan. 1994. Fisheries trends from Monroe County, Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. 54:982-1018.

Bohnsack, J.A., D.E. Harper, D.B. McClellan, M.W. Hulsbeck, T.N. Rutlendge, M.H. Pickett, and A.M. Eklund. 1992. Quantitative visual assessment of fish community structure in Biscayne National Park. Final Report to Biscayne National Park. 19 pp + Tables and Figures.

Bohnsack, J.A., H. Kumpf, E. Hobson, G. Huntsman, K.W. Able, and S.V. Ralston. 1989. Report on the concept of marine wilderness. Fisheries. 14:22-24.

Botsford, L.W., J.F. Quinn, S.R. Wing, and J.G. Brittnacher. 1993. Rotating spatial harvest of a benthic invertebrate, the red sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus. Pages 409-428 in ??(editors). Proceedings of the International Symposium on Management Strategies for Exploited Fish Populations. Alaska Sea Grant College Program. AK-SG-93-02.

Formulation of management policy in response to the dramatic increase in landings of the red sea urchin in northern California has been complicated by several problems. Recruitment involves two possible depensatory density-dependent mechanisms (i.e. Allee effects): (1) a juvenile refuge from predation under adult spines, and (2) a minimum density necessary for successful broadcast spawning. Growth and mortality rates are poorly known and vary with location. Size distributions vary in form, having a single mode at large sizes with an occasional additional mode at small sizes. Current management policy consists of a lower size limit and temporal closures. The recent decline in landing has led to interest in additional ways of controlling effort. Here we first review recent analyses of size distributions to obtain estimates of growth and mortality rates for this population. Then, using these preliminary parameter estimates, we analyze the potential for indirectly controlling fishing effort on sessile species using rotating spatial harvests. For species with Allee effects in recruitment, this method can provide increased spawning density with little decrease in yield. Combinations of yield and egg production using this method are similar to those obtained with constant effort. The advantage of this method is that it requires no direct controls on effort such as limited entry or quota management. This type of management also can take advantage of spatial variability in productivity. The performance of this method depends on several poorly known aspects of the fishery: harvester behavior, aggregation dynamics, and spatial and temporal variability in larval transport between sub-populations.

Brown, M.W., J.M. Allen, and S.D. Kraus. 1995. The designation of seasonal right whale conservation areas in the waters of Atlantic Canada. Pages 90-98 in N.L. Shackell and J.H. Martin Willison (editors). Marine Protected Areas and Sustainable Fisheries. Published by Science and Management of Protected Areas Association, Wolfville, Novia Scotia.

Canada has begun to take a leading role in the conservation of the North Atlantic right whale, the rarest of the large whales. In June 1993, two seasonal conservation areas were designated in the waters off Atlantic Canada, one in the Bay of Fundy, which serves as a summer and fall nursery and feeding ground: the second in Roseway Basin, a significant area for feeding and socializing. Over 50% of the known right whale population in the western North Atlantic has been identified in one or both of these areas annually since 1980. This designation will serve to alert mariners to seasonal aggregations of right whales in Canadian waters, increase awareness of human-related activities responsible for some deaths and injuries in this species including ship/whale collisions and entanglement in fishing gear, and reduce the potential for future interactions. Additional measures required to ensure the recovery and survival of this species are recommended. The use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) as a tool for mapping annual changes in right whale distribution and subsequent modification of designated area boundaries is examined.

Brunckhorst, D.J. (ed.). 1994. Marine Protected Areas and Biosphere Reserves: 'Towards a New Paradigm'. Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Marine and Coastal Protected Areas. Australian Nature Conservation Agency. v + 98 pp.

Brunckhorst D.J., and Bridgewater P.B. 1995 Marine Bio regional Planning: A Strategic Framework for Identifying Marine Reserve Networks, and Planning Sustainable Use and Management. Pages 105-116, N.L. Shakell and J.H. Martin Wilson (editors) Marine Protected Areas and Sustainable Fisheries. Published by Science and Management, Wolfville, Nova Scotia.

Most systems of protected areas whether terrestrial, coastal or marine do not adequately represent the diversity of ecosystems and species assemblages. Moreover, it is unclear whether individual reserves, large or small, contribute to the maintenance of ecological process and function at regional and larger scales. In other words, "ecosystem approaches" must become more broadly based to enhance natural resource protection and maintenance of ecological functions and services across entire land-seascapes, if sustainable use is to become an achievable goal. Coastal-marine degradation is a critical human management concern. Yet, the social/cultural identity with coastal land and sea must be factored into planning and will require the facilitation of cultural and institutional change. A novel approach for coastal-marine bio regional assessment and planning is herein distilled. Coastal marine bio regional frameworks provide an integrative context for complementary (off-reserve) bio regional planning, monitoring and management. We describe an explicit scientific process to distinguish culturally meaningful bio regions and identify representative bio regional networks of protected areas that are efficient and defensible. The bio regional approach we propose reflects and extends UNESCO biosphere reserve principles. We encourage the further adaptation and innovative application of bio regional frameworks and development of coastal-marine Biosphere Reserve models.

Bullimore, B. 1986. Skomer marine reserve subtidal monitoring project. Hydrobiologia. 142:340.

Butler, J.N., J. Burnett-Herkes, J.A. Barnes, and J. Ward. 1993. The Bermuda Fisheries: A Tragedy of the Commons Averted? Environment 35(1):7-15,25-33.

Buxton, C.D. ? Marine reserves - the way ahead ?

Buxton, C.D. 1992. The application of yield-per-recruit models to two South African sparid reef species, with special consideration to sex change. Fisheries Research. 15:1-16.

Buxton, C.D. 1993. Life-history changes in exploited reef fishes on the east coast of South Africa. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 36:47-63.

Buxton, C.D. (in press). Life history characteristics of temperate reef fishes and their implications for fisheries management. Proceedings World Fisheries Conference (Athens, May 1992).

Buxton, C.D. and M.J. Smale. 1989. Abundance and distribution patterns of three temperate marine reef fish (Teleostei: Sparidae) in exploited and unexploited areas off the southern Cape coast. J. Applied Ecol. 26:441-451.