Rakitin, A., and D.L. Kramer. 1996. Effect of a marine reserve on the distribution of coral reef fishes in Barbados. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 131:97-113.

Ramos-Espla, A.A. and S.E. McNeill. 1994. The status of marine conservation in Spain. Ocean & Coastal Management. 24: 125-138.

Randall, J.E. 1982. Tropical marine sanctuaries and their significance in reef fisheries research. p. 167-178. In: G.R. Huntsman, W.R. Nicholson, and W.W. Fox, Jr. (eds.). The Biological Basis for Reef Fishery Management, Proc. of a Workshop Held 7-10 October, 1980 at St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands. NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFS-SEFC-80.

Ray, G.C. 1976. Critical marine habitats. Proceedings of an International Conference on Marine Parks and Reserves. IUCN Publication No. 37, Gland, Switzerland.

Ray, G.C., J.A. Dobbin, and R.V. Salm. 1978. Strategies for protecting marine mammal habitats. Oceanus. 21:55-67.

Ray, G.C. and W.P. Gregg, Jr. 1991. Establishing biosphere reserves for coastal barrier ecosystems, a focus on coastal barriers highlights the challenges of implementing the biosphere-reserve concept. BioScience. 41:301-309.

Ray, G.C. and M. McCormick-Ray. 1992. Critical habitats and representative systems in marine environments: concepts and procedures. The Science of Conservation in the Coastal Zone. IV World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Recchia, C., Saint-Laurent, C., and Hackman, A. 1995. World Wildlife Fund's Endangered Spaces Campaign: Focus on Marine Protected Areas Pages 220-226 in N.L. Shackell and J.H. Martin Willison (editors). Marine Protected Areas and Sustainable Fisheries. Published by Science and Management

Canada has the longest coastline in the world, yet we lag behind other countries in marine conservation. Meanwhile, options for protecting Canada's natural marine ecosystems are quickly vanishing due to the impacts of human activities. Under the Endangered Spaces Campaign, World Wildlife Fund Canada (WWF) is working to obtain designation of a network of representative marine protected areas, to help conserve marine biodiversity. To accomplish this goal, WWF is working with governments, First Nations, scientists, other non-governmental organizations, and the private sector to identify conservation objectives and the best means of achieving them. Large, zoned marine protected areas that include highly protected core areas and less restricted buffer zones can serve many functions simultaneously. Core areas can protect particularly sensitive ecological features and processes, while buffer zones can separate human activities that are compatible with the overall conservation objectives of the marine protected area but incompatible with each other. Human activities incompatible with conservation objectives, such as those that cause large-scale habitat disruption, should be excluded from marine protected areas. Because we understand little about the functioning of marine ecosystems, we must be cautious about what human activities we allow within marine protected areas, and to what extent; to keep future options open, we must err on the side of conservation. While existing legislation provides some measure of protection for marine areas, new umbrella legislation is required to provide an integrated approach to selection, establishment, and management of marine protected areas, and rectify current jurisdictional gaps, conflicts, and uncertainties. The federal government has committed to establishing marine protected areas; WWF is working with other groups to ensure that commitment is met. Additionally, WWF is exploring other mechanisms for establishment of marine protected areas; conservation of Canaa's marine biodiversity will require use of many different tools and approaches.

Rice, M.A., C. Hickox, and I. Zehra. 1989. Effects of intensive fishing effort on the population structure of quahogs, Mercenaria mercenaria (Linnaeus 1758), in Narragensett Bay. J. Shellfish Res. 8:345-354.

Ricker, W.E. 1981. Changes in the average size and average age of Pacific salmon. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 38: 1636-1656.

Rigney, H. 1990. Marine reserves--blueprint for protection. Australian Fisheries. 49(12):19-23.

Increasing pressure from coastal development, pollution and recreational and commercial use has highlighted the need for protective measures for the marine environment. To date, 228 marine reserves in one form or another have been declared along Australia's coastline. "Australian Fisheries" looks at what benefits these reserves offer fishermen. Marine parks, aquatic reserves, marine and estuarine protected areas (MEPAs) - they may conjure up images of a pristine, marine "wilderness" area, untouched by exploiters. But the reality is usually quite different. Most marine protected areas do not exclude activities such as fishing. In fact, their management usually involves a system which allows for multiple uses of the available resources.

Roberts, C. M. 1994 Marine Reserves: A Brief Guide for Decision Makers and Users Workshop on Coastal and Ocean Resource Management, NGO Islands Forum, UN Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Dev. States Barbados.

Marine reserves are becoming widely used in efforts to protect and manage coastal resources. In recent years they have attracted much interest for their possible role in sustaining reef fisheries. Protection of fish stocks within marine replenishment reserves should lead to increased abundance and size of target species, thereby translating into increased egg production, which should benefit fisheries by planktonic dispersal and subsequent recruitment to fishing grounds. Ongoing studies of fish stocks around the island of Saba, in the Netherlands Antilles, where a section of the marine park has been closed to fishing since 1987, have shown a rapid response to protection. There is now a significantly higher standing stock of commercially important species in the unfished compared to the fished area. Moreover, between 1991 and 1993 there has been a rapid increase in standing stock fish within the reserve, with some families tripling over the two year period, and an overall increase of 63%. These findings, and studies elsewhere in the world, show that even very small reserves (a few square kilometers) can protect significant fishery stocks. Benefits from protected stocks are likely to be felt locally through emigration of fishery species to fishing grounds, and by export of planktonic larvae. Although some of these larvae may drift away from the place where the reserve is located, recent studies of current patterns around small islands suggest that a substantial proportion of larvae will be retained, thus benefiting the host nation. In addition to their fisheries function, marine reserves seem to be a promising means of protecting and enhancing biodiversity, and in doing so may yield further economic benefits. In Belize for example, the large and abundant fishes within the Hol Chan Marine Reserve provide a powerful attraction to tourists and so comprises a key to economic development of Ambergris Cay.

Roberts, C.M. 1995. Rapid build-up of fish biomass in a Caribbean marine reserve. Conservation Biology. 9:815-826.

Roberts, C.M. 1997. Connectivity and management of Caribbean coral reefs. Science. 278:1454-1456.

Roberts, C., W.J. Ballantine, C.D. Buxton, P. Dayton, L.B. Crowder, W. Milon, M.K. Orbach, D. Pauly, J. Trexler, C.J. Walters. 1995. Review of the use of marine fishery reserves in the U.S. southeastern Atlantic. Proceedings of a symposium at the American Fisheries Society 125th Annual Meeting, 28-29 August, 1995, Tampa, Florida. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-376. 31 p.

Roberts, C.M., and J.P. Hawkins. 1992. Mapping the distributions of coral reef fishes. Sea Wind. 5(4): 3-8.

Roberts, C.M., and N.V.C. Polunin. 1991. Are Marine Reserves Effective in Management of Reef Fisheries? Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 1:65-91.

Roberts, C.M. and N.V.C. Polunin. 1992. Effects of marine reserve protection on northern Red Sea fish populations. Proc. Int. Coral Reef Symp., 6th. 4:219-224.

Roberts, C. M. and N.V.C. Polunin. 1993. How marine reserves can benefit reefs and fishers Sea Wind 7(1) January-March 1993

Most people think of marine parks as areas established to preserve underwater ecosystems, protecting them from exploitation or damage and degradation at the hands of man. Indeed, this has been the main motive for establishing many reserves with preservation of unique and beautiful underwater life at the top of the agenda. Few people realize that marine reserves can play an important role in supporting reef fisheries (Alcala 1988, Roberts and Polunin 1991). This apparent paradox is easily explained. The Caribbean, for example, is renowned for the variety and quality of its seafood. Fishes, conch and spiny lobster provide unparalleled gastronomic delights but concern is growing that stocks are declining as demand increases. Although very different, these creatures share a common feature of their life histories. They spend their early lives as tiny larvae drifting in the open sea before settling onto a reef to grow to adulthood and reproduce. The vagaries of ocean currents mean that larvae may travel far from the reefs where they were spawned before settling. This provides the key to one of the ways in which reserves may help fish.

Roberts, C.M. and N.V.C. Polunin. 1993. Marine reserves: Simple solutions to managing complex fisheries? AMBIO 22(6):363-368.

Fisheries on coral reefs are highly complex, can be very productive, but typically have little or no management. Widespread over fishing and declining yields reveal an acute need for proper management. However, conventional management methods are inappropriate for two main reasons: they require much information on the biology of stocks and are expensive and difficult to enforce. Use of marine reserves has been suggested as an alternative. Protective management potentially has several important benefits including (I) protection of spawning stocks; (ii) provision of recruits to replenish fishing grounds; (iii) enhancement of catches in adjacent unprotected areas through emigration; (iv) minimal requirement for information on biology of stocks; and (v) ease of enforcement. However, the effectiveness of the reserve approach has not been properly tested. We evaluate the evidence available to test whether reserves function as predicted on theoretical grounds. In general, field studies from widespread sites around the globe support predictions of increases in abundance and average size of fishes in protected areas. However, evidence for enhanced catches in adjacent areas is more limited, and evidence to show that reserves can restock fishing grounds is lacking. Nevertheless, protective management appears to hold much promise for low-cost management of reef fisheries. Research programs in several areas of the Caribbean and Indo-Pacific have now been launched to refine the approach.

Roberts, C.M. and N.V.C. Polunin. 1994. Hol Chan: demonstrating that marine reserves can be remarkably effective. Coral Reefs. 13: 90.

The Hol Chan Marine Reserve lies off Ambergris Cay, in Belize. Covering 2.6 km2, the reserve has been protected from all forms of fishing since 1987. Although small, Hol Chan contains a higher biomass of fishes per unit area of reef than we have seen anywhere else in the world. Enormous schools of grunts and snappers, so dense they almost obscure the reef, mingle with huge roving black groupers (Mycteropera bonaci) and grey snappers (Lutjanus griseus). The standing stock of commercially important species reaches 340 g/m2 in the centre of the reserve, while at the periphery it averages 77 g/m2, about double that in adjacent fished areas (Polunin and Roberts 1993). This compares with values for lightly fished reefs of 27 g/mm2 for the Caribbean island of Saba, 65 g/m2 for the northern Red Sea (data collected using the same observer and method), and 24 g/m2 at French Frigate Shoals (Polovina 1984), 49 g/m2 for Hawaii (Grigg 1994; data collected using different methods). The reserve also contained seven more species of commercial fishes than areas subject to fishing. The presence of large fishes in the reserve is particularly important to replenishment because of their disproportionately large contribution to egg production. In addition to boosting reproductive output, the reserve may also play an important role in protection of species which are vulnerable to fishing.

Roberts, T.W. 1986. Abundance and distribution of pink shrimp in and around the Tortugas Sanctuary, 1981-1983. North Am. J. Fish. Manag. 6:311-327.

Robison, B.H. 1993. New technologies for sanctuary research. Oceanus. 36:75-80.

Rogers-Bennett, L. 1997. Marine protected areas and the red sea urchin fishery. p. 91-102. In : Marine Protected Areas of California: A Summary of a Conference Session. D.M. McCardle and R.M. Starr (eds.). Univ. Of California, Sea Grant Cooperative Extension, Santa Barbara, CA.

Rogers-Bennett, L., W.A. Bennett, H.C. Fastenau, and C.M. Dewees. 1995. Spatial variation in red sea urchin reproduction and morphology: implications for harvest refugia. Ecol. Appl. 5:1171-1180.

Rowley, R. J. 1992. Impacts of marine reserves on fisheries: A report and review of the literature. Science and Research Series Number 51: 1-50. Available from New Zealand Department of Conservation, Post Office Box 10-420, Wellington, New Zealand.

Marine reserves have the potential to increase fishery catches in two ways: through emigration of large fish across the border of a reserve and into local fishing areas ("spillover"); and through the export of larvae from a reserve, which may enhance recruitment into regional fishery stocks. There are also a variety of potential benefits of reserves that are important, but will not directly affect catches. These include: helping to maintain species genetic diversity and population size structure; providing a buffer against recruitment failure; and providing unharvested "baselines" from which to measure the effects of fishing. The evidence regarding spillover from reserves is limited, but supports the conclusion that spillover will occur and may substantially augment local catches. The strongest response to spillover reserves is expected from species that have been heavily over fished, reach potentially large sizes or ages, and whose movement range is limited. New Zealand species that may benefit include rock lobster, paua, groper, red moki, and blue cod. Larval export reserves have the potential to substantially enhance fisheries over large regions, but this potential is entirely untested. New Zealand species that may benefit from larval export reserves include rock lobster, paua, and orange roughy. Research needed to better design and manage marine reserves includes: description of the daily, ontogenic, feeding, spawning, and migratory movements of species of interest; and understanding of the transport of planktonic larvae by currents.

Rowley, R.J. 1994. Case Studies and Reviews: Marine reserves in fisheries management. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 4:233-254.

This paper summarizes research on the uses of marine reserves for fisheries management. Examples emphasize separate marine reserves. 2. Marine reserves commonly support higher densities and larger sizes of heavily fished species than are found outside reserves. 3. "Spillover" of individuals across reserve borders is likely to augment local catches. There are good reasons to expect such spillover, and there is limited direct evidence for it. However, the magnitude of any resulting increase in local catches will be difficult to predict. 4. "Larval export" from reserves has potential to augment recruitment over large regions, but its success will depend upon many factors that are difficult to predict. No studies have clearly tested the effects of larval export. 5. To design more effective marine reserves, studies are needed of the movement patterns and habitat requirements of all life stages (larval, settlement, juvenile, adult, feeding, and breeding) of targeted species. 6. To determine clearly the effects of marine reserves on fisheries requires replicated before/after studies.

Russ, G.R. 1985. Effects of protective management on coral reef fishes in the central Philippines. Proc. Int. Coral Reef Sym., 6th. 4:219-224.

Russ, G.R. 1989. Distribution and abundance of coral reef fishes in the Sumilon Island reserve, central Philippines, after nine years of protection from fishing. Asian Mar. Biol. 6:59-71.

Russ, G. R. 1991 Coral Reef Fisheries: Effects and Yields Chapter 20 in P. Sale, The Ecology of Fishes on Coral Reefs. Academic Press, Inc. Pages 601-635.

Russ, G.R., and A.C. Alcala. 1989. Effects of intense fishing pressure on an assemblage of coral reef fishes. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 56:13-27.

Russ, G.R., and A.C. Alcala. 1994. Sumilon Island Reserve: 20 years of hopes and frustration. NAGA, The ICLARM Quarterly. July 1994. Pages 8-12.

This is a summary of multiple studies and is one of the best documented studies on effects on surrounding areas.

Russ, G.R. and A.C. Alcala. 1996. Marine reserves: rates and patterns of recovery and decline in abundance of large predatory fish. Ecological Applications 6:947-961.

Russ, G.R. and A.C. Alcala. 1996. Do marine reserves export adult fish biomass? Evidence from Apo Island, central Philippines. Marine Ecology Progress Series 132: 1-9.

This is an outstanding detailed documentation of biomass improvements and export due to reserves. It is one of the best documented studies on effects on surrounding areas.

Russ, G.R., A.C. Alcala, and A.S. Cabanban. 1992. Marine reserves and fisheries management on coral reefs with preliminary modeling of the effects on yield per recruit. Proc. Int. Coral Reef Symp., 7^th, Guam. 2:978-985.